Discrimination and Gender: An Umbrella Review of Psychological Evidence.

An umbrella review of 22 eligible systematic reviews and meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2024 examined the relationship between gender, stereotypes, and discrimination.

• Searches were conducted across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science following PRISMA 2020 guidelines.
• 684 records were screened, yielding 22 eligible reviews after screening.
• The review covered publications from 2013 to 2024.
• Thematic synthesis identified two overarching domains: manifestations of discrimination and health and professional outcomes.

Gender discrimination was found to manifest as structural, interpersonal, and implicit, operating through institutional barriers, microaggressions, and stereotyping mechanisms.

• Discrimination was identified at individual, interpersonal, and structural levels.
• Mechanisms included cognitive, emotional, and social processes.
• Microaggressions were identified as a key interpersonal manifestation of discrimination.
• Stereotyping mechanisms were identified as a primary pathway through which discrimination operates.

Gender discrimination significantly affected mental health outcomes, particularly anxiety, depression, and psychological distress.

• Mental health was identified as a major domain of harm resulting from gender discrimination.
• Specific outcomes documented included anxiety, depression, and psychological distress.
• These effects were consistent across the reviewed literature.
• These findings were part of the broader health and professional outcomes domain identified through thematic synthesis.

Gender discrimination was associated with adverse physical health outcomes, including cardiovascular outcomes and maternal morbidity.

• Physical health consequences of gender discrimination included cardiovascular outcomes.
• Maternal morbidity was specifically documented as a physical health outcome linked to gender discrimination.
• Physical health harms were identified alongside mental health consequences in the health outcomes domain.

Professional and social functioning were impaired by gender-based inequalities, with disparities documented in pay, promotion, and role allocation across multiple occupational contexts.

• Gender-based inequalities in pay were documented across multiple occupational contexts.
• Disparities in promotion opportunities were identified as a consistent professional outcome.
• Role allocation inequalities were also documented across occupational settings.
• These findings were part of the professional and social functioning component of the health and professional outcomes domain.

The literature revealed limited consensus in conceptualization of gender discrimination and a lack of longitudinal and intervention research.

• Despite consistent evidence of harm, the field lacks agreed-upon conceptual frameworks.
• Longitudinal research examining gender discrimination over time was identified as a gap.
• Intervention research addressing gender discrimination was found to be lacking.
• These limitations were identified as key gaps in the existing body of evidence.