School sports/play facilities, aesthetics, PA policies, and neighborhood recreational facilities significantly amplify the associations between physical activity and both motor competence and perceived physical literacy in school-aged children.
Key Findings
Results
The positive association between physical activity and motor competence was strongest in schools with better facilities and high aesthetic scores.
Slope b = 2.07 in schools with better facilities and high aesthetic scores versus b = 0.86 in lower-quality settings
School sports/play facilities and aesthetics were identified as significant moderators of the PA-MC relationship
Motor competence was evaluated through a standardized physical performance test
Sample included 396 school-aged children (51.5% girls; mean age = 10.3 ± 5.8 years)
Results
The relationship between physical activity and perceived physical literacy was most pronounced when supportive school policies and greater availability of neighborhood recreational infrastructure were both present.
Slope b = 0.40 when supportive school PA policies and greater neighborhood recreational infrastructure were both present, versus b = 0.24 in less supportive conditions
Both school-level (PA policies) and neighborhood-level (recreational facilities) environmental factors jointly moderated the PA-PPL relationship
Perceived physical literacy was measured via self-reported questionnaire
Physical activity was also measured via self-reported questionnaire
Results
Model-based tree approaches outperformed traditional regression models in predictive accuracy for examining environmental moderation effects.
Model-based trees improved Pearson correlation by r = 0.06–0.09 compared to traditional regression models
The model-based tree approach provided 'a nuanced view of how place-based factors interact to affect children's development'
Environmental characteristics were assessed using both an audit tool and a questionnaire
The approach allowed identification of specific combinations of environmental features as moderators
Results
Both school-level and neighborhood-level physical environmental factors were identified as significant moderators of the relationship between physical activity and children's motor and physical literacy outcomes.
School-level factors included sports/play facilities, aesthetics, and PA policies
Neighborhood-level factors included recreational facilities
The study addressed a gap in research, noting 'a lack of research investigating the relationship between the characteristics of physical environment and motor competence as well as physical literacy'
The model examined moderation rather than direct effects of environment on outcomes
Methods
The study sample consisted of 396 school-aged children with a mean age of 10.3 years, approximately half of whom were girls.
51.5% of participants were girls
Mean age = 10.3 ± 5.8 years
A model-based tree approach was applied to examine environmental moderation
Environmental characteristics were assessed using both an audit tool and a questionnaire, combining objective and subjective measurement approaches
What This Means
This research suggests that the quality and characteristics of the spaces where children spend time — particularly their schools and neighborhoods — play an important role in shaping how physical activity translates into motor skills and feelings of physical confidence. The study found that when schools have better sports and play facilities, more attractive environments, and supportive policies around physical activity, children who are more physically active also tend to show stronger motor competence and a greater sense of themselves as physically capable. Specifically, the boost in motor skills associated with being physically active was more than twice as strong in high-quality school environments compared to lower-quality ones.
The study also found that having both supportive school policies and access to recreational facilities in the neighborhood together created the strongest link between being physically active and feeling physically literate — that is, feeling motivated, confident, and knowledgeable about movement. This suggests that environments at multiple levels (school and neighborhood) work together to support children's physical development, not just independently.
The researchers used a relatively new statistical approach called model-based trees, which was better at capturing these complex, interacting relationships than traditional statistical methods. The findings highlight that improving children's physical development may require attention not just to encouraging activity itself, but to the quality and design of the spaces where that activity happens. This has practical implications for school design, urban planning, and policy decisions aimed at supporting healthy child development equitably across different communities.
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Molina-García J, García-Massó X, Queralt A, Ortega-Benavent N, Menescardi C, Estevan I. (2026). Spaces that move children: The role of the physical environment in developing motor competence and physical literacy.. PloS one. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350957