The impact of mining-induced earthquakes on mental health: Evidence from the Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study and Biobank.

Long-term exposure to mining-induced earthquakes increases depression symptoms in affected individuals.

• Exposure was measured using accumulated peak ground acceleration from earthquakes generated by natural gas extraction in the Netherlands.
• Individual-level fixed effects models were employed to deal with selective exposure.
• Data were drawn from the Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study and Biobank linked with Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute earthquake data.
• Results were robust to selective migration and to varying the exposure indicator.

Long-term exposure to mining-induced earthquakes increases anxiety symptoms in affected individuals.

• Anxiety symptoms were assessed alongside depression symptoms as part of mental health outcomes.
• Exposure was operationalized as accumulated peak ground acceleration over time, capturing the cumulative nature of recurring smaller shocks.
• Individual-level fixed effects models were used to address potential confounding from selective exposure.
• Results were robust to sensitivity analyses including selective migration and alternative exposure indicators.

Accumulated peak ground acceleration was used as the measure of long-term earthquake exposure rather than single-event measures.

• The exposure indicator captures long-term, cumulative exposure to frequent, smaller, recurring seismic shocks rather than single major disasters.
• Earthquake data were sourced from the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute.
• This approach distinguishes the study from literature focused on major natural disasters.
• The robustness of results was confirmed by varying the exposure indicator.

The study leveraged the Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study and Biobank to examine mental health effects of earthquakes induced by natural gas extraction.

• Natural gas extraction was described as 'a major source of economic revenue for the Netherlands.'
• Individual-level panel data allowed use of fixed effects models to control for time-invariant confounders.
• The cohort study design enabled examination of repeated exposures over time.
• Results support 'a reassessment of the societal costs of the mining of natural gas.'

The mental health findings were robust to selective migration as a potential source of bias.

• Selective migration could bias results if individuals most affected by earthquakes differentially relocate away from exposed areas.
• Robustness checks specifically addressed selective migration as well as variation in the exposure indicator.
• Individual-level fixed effects models were the primary strategy to deal with selective exposure.
• The consistency of findings across sensitivity analyses strengthens the causal interpretation of the results.